Study Of Variable Valve Timing Engineering Essay

Study Of Variable Valve Timing Engineering Essay Variable Valve Timing is a mechanism in which the lift, duration or timing of either the intake or exhaust valves or both can be altered in several combinations during engine operation. This is not possible for an engine with fixed intake and exhaust valves. An engine with VVT installed helps in improving engine performance over a wider range of the engine operating spectrum. In this paper, the effect of VVTs on gasoline as well as diesel engines were discussed and also compared to their series counterparts. For a diesel engine, it was observed that with the introduction of a VVT, higher fuel-line and combustion pressures were achieved with inadvertently led to a better engine performance along with lower smoke density and higher torque at low speeds. Minute variations in CO, NOx and PM emissions were observed. However at full-load operation, NOx emissions had increased marginally. In the case of the gasoline engine, it was observed that there wasnt any significant improvement in the CO and NOx emissions. However, the engine torque had increased particularly at low speeds and at partial load. This was complimented by a decrease in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bsfc). INTRODUCTION The valves in 4-Stroke IC Engines are mostly spring operated [1]. The opening and closing of these valves is governed by the crankshaft which is connected to the valves through an intermediary camshaft which is attached to every valve through a cam. The amount of fuel that enters the combustion chamber is dependent upon valve timing. The camshaft is connected to the crankshaft by using any one of gears, chains or belts. In conventional engines without VVT, the cam lobe shape and position as well as it profile are tuned for a particular engine speed and this usually compromises high-end torque or low-end power. However, with the introduction of VVT, the cam characteristics, e.g. timing, can be altered. Thus, this allows for better engine efficiency and power at variable engine speeds [2]. This is useful especially at high speed operation where a car requires more air in order to deliver the required power. If lesser amount of air were to be entered at high speeds, there would a considerable decrease in performance. However, if the valves were to be kept open for a longer duration, there would be a case of incomplete combustion inside the combustion chamber at low speeds since the pressure required to attain proper combustion of fuel is insufficient. This again results in reduced engine performance as well as an increase in fuel emissions [2]. Modern emission regulations set by various governments have forced several manufacturers to adopt VVT in their engines. Most of the current car manufacturers have adopted VVT engine systems. The popular VVT mechanisms are classified into purely mechanical, electro-mechanical and hydraulic. Purely mechanical VVT systems are further classified into Oscillating Cam, Eccentric Cam Drive, Three-Dimensional Cam Lobe and Two Shaft Combined Profile [2]. TYPES OF VVTs Purely Mechanical In this type of VVT, the valve timing is operated by mechanical means. It is further subdivided into: Oscillating Cam This method involves using either a conventional cam lobe or an eccentric and connecting rod which generates oscillatory motion on part cam lobe which is connected to the follower and thus, the valve. The part lobe is made up of a section each of base circle and lobe flank. The position of the part cam lobe can be varied depending on whether zero lift and zero position are required in which case the part cam lobe is completely base circle. The exact opposite situation is maximum duration at full lift in which case it is fully flank. BMWs Valvetronic, Toyota Valvematic( both conventional) and Nissan VVEL( eccentric and connecting rod) are variations of this method. The Valvetronic is very dependable however the lift duration is dependent on amount of lift. Hence its only used on intake valves. The Valvematic and the VVEL are more compact while delivering the same performance as the Valvetronic [2]. Eccentric Cam Drive The Rover Company is the only company in history to have ever used this version of VVT. In this method, an eccentric disc mechanism is used which can vary the angular speed of the cam. The lesser the angular speed, the greater the duration of lift. The disadvantage of this method is that its expensive as each valve requires its own controller [2]. Three-Dimensional Cam Lobe This system comprises of an axially elongated cam lobe which has shorter duration profile and a greater duration profile at either ends. Thus, valve lift duration can be varied by tilting the cam lobe axially. However, such a system requires the follower to tilt in various directions as the lobe flanks of the cam lobe are not parallel to the axis of rotation of the camshaft. This problem has never been rectified which is why its not used commercially [2]. Two Shaft Combined Profile In this system, two closely arranged camshafts are used. The angular positions of the camshaft with respect to the crankshaft can be arranged by using a phasing mechanism. A follower connects both camshafts and is operated by the two lobes simultaneously. The two lobes are used for the intake and exhaust valves respectively. The disadvantage of this system is that the settings on one lobe may affect the other thus tampering the entire system. It has yet to be used commercially [2]. Electro-mechanical Camless engines use this type of VVT in which the valve opening and closing is achieved by using electro-magnets. The disadvantages of this systems are : deceleration of the valve is hard to achieve, springs used in the valves have to adjusted to the smallest of margins and finally, the use of electromagnets reduces the engine efficiency [2]. Hydraulic Another system developed as an alternative to cam engines. In this system, the pressure of the liquid is used to activate valves. However, this system has its disadvantages. The energy required to operate a highly active hydraulic system under different circumstances is very high. The viscosity of the hydraulic fluid can vary over different temperatures. The use of springs deters high engine speed generation. The adequate operation of this system requires the aid of powerful computers and accurate sensors [2]. GASOLINE ENGINES WITH VVT INSTALLED VVT was installed in a gasoline engine and it was observed that for optimal performance, the inlet valve the inlet valve closing(IC) and the exhaust valve(EC) opening periods have to be optimised. The maximum temperature and pressure obtained in the combustion chamber is a result of IC optimisation. Optimal timing for each valve is dependent on engine speed. This characteristic is shown for both IC and EO at part load as well as full load through figures 1 and 2. C:UsersUSERDesktopoptimal EO vs engine speed.png Figure 1 Optimal EO Vs Engine Speed[3] C:UsersUSERDesktopOptimal IC vs engine speed.png Figure 2 Optimal IC Vs Engine Speed[3] Figures 3,4,5 and 6 compare Torque produced, bsfc, CO emissions and NOx emissions respectively for a normal engine and an engine with VVT installed at full load. C:UsersUSERDesktopTorque vs engine speed, full load petrol.png Figure 3 Torque Vs Engine Speed at full load C:UsersUSERDesktopbsfc vs engine speed,full load petrol.png Figure 4 bsfc vs Engine Speed at full load[3] C:UsersUSERDesktopCO emissions vs engine speed, full load petrol.png Figure 5 CO emissions Vs Engine Speed at full load [3] C:UsersUSERDesktopCO emissions vs engine speed, full load petrol.png Figure 6 NOx emissions Vs Engine Speed at full load [3] Its observed that VVT has little or no effect on the CO or NOx emissions. However, the torque produced has increased by 6% accompanied by a bsfc decrease of 2% [3]. Similarly at part load, the torque produced, bsfc, CO and NOx emissions were compared for both engines and the results are indicated in figures 7,8,9 and 10 respectively. C:UsersUSERDesktopTorque vs engine speed, part load petrol.png Figure 7 Torque produced vs Engine Speed at part load[3] C:UsersUSERDesktopbsfc vs engine speed, part load petrol.png Figure 8 bsfc vs Engine Speed at part load [3] C:UsersUSERDesktopCO emissions vs engine speed, part load petrol.png Figure 9 CO emissions Vs Engine Speed at part load [3] C:UsersUSERDesktopNOx emissions vs engine speed, part load petrol.png Figure 10 Nox emissions Vs Engine Speed at part load [3] At partial load, its observed that the torque increases by 4% and 3% when the engine is rotating at 2000rpm and 5000rpm respectively complemented by a bsfc decrease of 6% and 14%. The main advantage of the VVT for a gasoline engine is maximum torque can be achieved at a lower speed of rotation [3]. DIESEL ENGINES WITH VVT INSTALLED There are a number of factors which have hampered the research of VVT in diesel engines. Two of those factors are the complexity of VVT technology and the rapid evolution of diesel engine technology. Due to the lean nature of air fuel mixture, diesel engines emit much less CO as compared to their gasoline counterparts. This is because of the absence of unburnt hydrocarbons in the mixture. However, due to higher temperatures involved in diesel engines owing to higher compression ratios, NOx are much more prominent as compared to gasoline engines [4]. Since diesel engines operate under higher compression ratios, the gap between the valves and the top of the piston at Top Dead Centre (TDC) is very minimal. Therefore, the VVT has to be designed such that there is no contact between the valves and the piston. Figure 11 shows the variation of torque with engine speed by only varying the inlet valve closing C:UsersUSERDesktoptorque vs speed, IC diesel.png Figure 11 Torque Vs Engine Speed at full load with inlet valve closing control [4] It is observed particularly at low engine speeds that the maximum torque increases at low speeds. In this case, there was a 6% increase in torque at 1000rpm and 8% increase at 1600rpm. A similar pattern is observed by controlling the exhaust valve opening (EO) as well as the combined control of EO and IC. This is indicated in figures 12 13 repectively. C:UsersUSERDesktopTorque vs engine speed EO diesel.png Figure 12 Torque Vs Engine Speed at full load with EO control [4] C:UsersUSERDesktopTorque vs engine speed EO,IC- diesel.png Figure 13 Torque Vs Engine Speed at full load by controlling EO IC At part load is was observed that by closing the inlet valve before Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), the bsfc had reduced [4]. Figure 14 shows the effect of IC timing on effective compression ratio after the installation of VVT. C:UsersUSERDesktopCompression ratio IC- diesel.png Figure 14 Effect Of IC Timing On Effective Compression Ratio [4] It is clear from figure 14 that by advancing the IC after BDC the compression ratio increases inside the combustion chamber. CONCLUSION The need for Variable Valve Timing has been discussed in detail. The various types of VVTs popularly have been discussed briefly. Most of modern vehicles use VVTs mainly due to legislation. The effect of using VVT in a gasoline as well as a diesel engine was analysed and explained accordingly. It was noticed that though there wasnt any appreciable decrease in emissions, the maximum torque produced was attained at a lower speed compared to their series counterparts. Also, the bsfc in both cases had been reduced.

Discovering Alcott :: Louisa May Alcott Writers Essays

Discovering Alcott When I was a child, I spent all my free time reading. I loved the Nancy Drew series of mysteries and even read a few Hardy Boys. I also read every other book available in our house, especially the children’s book I read to my younger brothers and sisters. Each of them had a favorite book. Those books were read over and over at bedtime or to entertain them while my mother was busy. As I grew older, the responsibility of reading to the other children passed to my younger sister, Cathy. I looked forward to summer vacations because that meant more time to read books that I chose. There was no library in our small town but my mother had lots of books. I also had a two friends, girls who were the only child in their families, and they had all the latest books, ones my family could not afford. I had the privilege of borrowing books from them. When I was eleven years old, I discovered Little Women by Louisa May Alcott. I was a child who noticed details so the author’s name immediately intrigued me. Louisa was my grandmother’s name. I could not remember this grandmother but she was my mother's mother and May is my mother’s middle name, so I felt this had some significance. I was sure that Louisa May Alcott had written something especially intended for me. I did not underestimate how important she would be to me. In addition to our regular household chores of cleaning, babysitting, bed making and helping with cooking, washing and ironing, my older sister, Marian, and I were old enough now to help with canning and freezing fruits and vegetables. We were aware that this must be done in order to feed the family through the winter. We felt our mother’s worry about being able to provide for us so endured the hot, muggy kitchen when we, or at least I, would much rather have been curled up in a quiet corner with a book. I was intrigued from the first page of Little Women because it was about four girls and they were talking about being poor. I could feel and understand their worries. Not only that, one of them reminded the others that they were lucky, they had each other, something my own mother often told us we should appreciate. As the story continued I could not help comparing them to my own family. Discovering Alcott :: Louisa May Alcott Writers Essays Discovering Alcott When I was a child, I spent all my free time reading. I loved the Nancy Drew series of mysteries and even read a few Hardy Boys. I also read every other book available in our house, especially the children’s book I read to my younger brothers and sisters. Each of them had a favorite book. Those books were read over and over at bedtime or to entertain them while my mother was busy. As I grew older, the responsibility of reading to the other children passed to my younger sister, Cathy. I looked forward to summer vacations because that meant more time to read books that I chose. There was no library in our small town but my mother had lots of books. I also had a two friends, girls who were the only child in their families, and they had all the latest books, ones my family could not afford. I had the privilege of borrowing books from them. When I was eleven years old, I discovered Little Women by Louisa May Alcott. I was a child who noticed details so the author’s name immediately intrigued me. Louisa was my grandmother’s name. I could not remember this grandmother but she was my mother's mother and May is my mother’s middle name, so I felt this had some significance. I was sure that Louisa May Alcott had written something especially intended for me. I did not underestimate how important she would be to me. In addition to our regular household chores of cleaning, babysitting, bed making and helping with cooking, washing and ironing, my older sister, Marian, and I were old enough now to help with canning and freezing fruits and vegetables. We were aware that this must be done in order to feed the family through the winter. We felt our mother’s worry about being able to provide for us so endured the hot, muggy kitchen when we, or at least I, would much rather have been curled up in a quiet corner with a book. I was intrigued from the first page of Little Women because it was about four girls and they were talking about being poor. I could feel and understand their worries. Not only that, one of them reminded the others that they were lucky, they had each other, something my own mother often told us we should appreciate. As the story continued I could not help comparing them to my own family. Discovering Alcott :: Louisa May Alcott Writers Essays Discovering Alcott When I was a child, I spent all my free time reading. I loved the Nancy Drew series of mysteries and even read a few Hardy Boys. I also read every other book available in our house, especially the children’s book I read to my younger brothers and sisters. Each of them had a favorite book. Those books were read over and over at bedtime or to entertain them while my mother was busy. As I grew older, the responsibility of reading to the other children passed to my younger sister, Cathy. I looked forward to summer vacations because that meant more time to read books that I chose. There was no library in our small town but my mother had lots of books. I also had a two friends, girls who were the only child in their families, and they had all the latest books, ones my family could not afford. I had the privilege of borrowing books from them. When I was eleven years old, I discovered Little Women by Louisa May Alcott. I was a child who noticed details so the author’s name immediately intrigued me. Louisa was my grandmother’s name. I could not remember this grandmother but she was my mother's mother and May is my mother’s middle name, so I felt this had some significance. I was sure that Louisa May Alcott had written something especially intended for me. I did not underestimate how important she would be to me. In addition to our regular household chores of cleaning, babysitting, bed making and helping with cooking, washing and ironing, my older sister, Marian, and I were old enough now to help with canning and freezing fruits and vegetables. We were aware that this must be done in order to feed the family through the winter. We felt our mother’s worry about being able to provide for us so endured the hot, muggy kitchen when we, or at least I, would much rather have been curled up in a quiet corner with a book. I was intrigued from the first page of Little Women because it was about four girls and they were talking about being poor. I could feel and understand their worries. Not only that, one of them reminded the others that they were lucky, they had each other, something my own mother often told us we should appreciate. As the story continued I could not help comparing them to my own family.

Native American Indians Then and Now Essay

Native American Indians Native American Indians have not changed much in hundreds of years. The Natives still have the same belief as they did from the beginning of time. They are still forced to live on reserved lands that do not seem livable and are in worse conditions now than ever before. Even though people think due to casinos that the American Indians have it made, the Natives are still being mistreated, many tribes are well below poverty levels, highest in death rates, have the most number of preventable diseases, the highest of teen suicide than anywhere in the Nation. Native American Indians traditions go back to the beginning of time. The Native religion is more about sacred and ceremonies. The Native people do not have a word for religion it is more a way of life to them than a religion. According to one researcher, â€Å"There is not one Native tradition to represent Native religion. Just as there are numerous Christian beliefs the Native people have many different beliefs. The Native ceremonies are so similar that it is impossible to discuss them as one† (Burbar, and Vernon 2006) The Natives have always been connected to the lands. Most of their ceremonies and sacred objects come from the lands and has everything to do with how they feel about them. Native people do not believe they can own the lands that people are merely caretakers of it. The Native believe that the land is a gift from the Creator, put here to give them tools for survival. They believe if they take something from the land that they must give thanks for the gift given. They do this by offering sacred herbs, prayer, and dance. Native American Indians The Native people give each member roles to keep the villages running smoothly. The Native men hunt and protect the village, while the women gather fruits, berries, and keep the camps, the children gathered wood, help clean hides, look after the younger children and clean the camps. One researcher studies tells stories of how some tribes are at certain times in the tribal life. â€Å"On the Northwest coast, young women were taught that the wives of Makah whale hunters must very still in bed while their husbands hunted, since their movement influenced the whale’s behaviors. In a Navajo story Black God had all animals penned up until his wife opened the gate. The animals escaped and thereafter had to be hunted, (Kidwell, 1998). All of this became threatened with the arrival of foreigners. With the foreigners coming and bringing there Christian beliefs the Native traditions were going to be challenged. With the start of the White Mans government the Natives faced having several ceremonial rights taken away for hundreds of years. The Natives were stopped from worshiping in manners they were accustomed. The Natives were forced to worship the Christian belief and if they refused they were put to death or imprisoned. Many of the Native traditional ceremonies were stopped completely. Two of those rights at this time were the Ghost Dance, and the Sun dance. The Natives found ways around this; they would go to places they knew white men would not to have ceremonies that had been band. Due to so many of the Native rights being taken away the Natives formed a group called â€Å"American Indian Movement† (AIM). AIM in the early years was called â€Å"Indian wars†. After fighting the government for several years and fighting for their right to religious freedom President Jimmy Carter signed the American Indian Religious freedom Act, Native American Indians (AIRFA). Burke, and Vernon, 2006), AIRFA was one of the very few times when congress gave the Natives the legislative right to worship in the manner he or she feels fit. (Burke, and Vernon, 2006). After a few more decades of being mistreated and having rights taken and treaties broken Aim reformed again. AIM’s early and best known leaders, Russell Means, Dennis Banks, Clyde and Vernon Bellecourt, these Native men formed together to fight for the rights of all indigenous peoples across the world. According to one research study, the â€Å"Trail of Broken Treaties† was â€Å"AIM’s first national pretest event of the 1970’s. AIM’s best-known and controversial protest action began February 1973 in Wounded Knee, South Dakota, a small town in Pine Ridge Reservation†, (Encyclopedia Race and Racism p. 82) better known now as the â€Å"Siege at Wounded Knee†. The siege lasted 71 days and when it was over several of the AIM members were arrested for causing riots. Many of the AIM leaders spent years in legislation, exile, or prison. One of the best known cases is that of Leonard Peltier. Peltier was imprisoned for killing two FBI agents. Several years later it was proven that Peltier did not receive a fare trial. Much of the evidence was not allowed in court and was suppressed from the jurors. After decades of trying to get Peltier freed from prison he was finally deemed the only American political prisoner in 1984. Peltier is still in prison to this day and the Natives are still fighting for his release. A more resent less known case August 22, 2008 of the Natives not receiving justice is the case of Robert Whirlwind Horse 23 and Calonnie Randall 26. These two Natives was struck and killed by a drunk driver Timothy Hotz while walking on a reservation road. This was Hotz Native American Indians fourth DUI, one year prior Hotz had his third DUI. After striking the Natives Hotz continued to drive home without stopping. The next morning Hotz noticed hair on his bumper and turned him self in to authorities. Mr. Hotz received 51 months for killing the Native men. This infuriated the Natives once again. (Means, Russell, Republic of Lakota 2009, April 22). Another case of a young native boy went to the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and was upset at the justice received over Hotz actions and was outraged. He shot one bullet into the radiator of the BIA agent’s car and received 20 years imprisonment. The Natives are still being forced to live on reservations. The reservations are in such horrendous conditions almost all the reservations are in worse conditions than most third world countries, (Republic of the Lakotah, conditions); According to one Native â€Å"It is like living in Hattie’s†,(Means Russell). The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota is one such reservation. â€Å"The United States Government has not upheld many of it promises to the Lakotah people and the results to this is astonishing†, (Means, Russell, Republic of the Lakotah). Due to the conditions the Lakotah people are forced to live in has caused them to have the highest death rates than anywhere else in the Nation. Reservations across the country are well below the poverty level. (Figure 3 below) The average life span of a Lakotah Male is 44 years. (Figure 1 below) The Lakotah people have the most preventable diseases than anywhere in the nation. Much of the disease could be stopped if the government would allow the Natives have vaccines and medications. The teen suicide rates are the highest of anywhere in the nation.

The Love in Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare - 883 Words

Love is just a word, until someone comes along and gives it a meaning. But what meaning they give the word is up to them .there are many different types of love in this world. Love comes in many different ways and they are not always pleasant. Love can make you happy or sad it depends on the way it comes to you. Love is tricky and can be confused with all of the different types of love. Love isn’t just one thing there is many different ways to show in and have it. In this play by Shakespeare Romeo and Juliet the word love is shown in many different ways. There is the love that Romeo and Juliet fell in which you can actually put into many different types of love. Then the way Romeo loved Rosaline is another way. And the way the nurse cared for Juliet is yet another type of love shown. In William Shakespeare’s play The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, these types of love are romantic, unrequited, and parental. One topic of my paper is on romantic love and it is shown wonderfully in this particular play. â€Å"Romeo and Juliet are in a hurry even when it comes to dying. There is no doubt in Their soul then would rather die than live apart† (Eckhoff 471). That is one wonderful quote that shows a prospect of romantic love. It talks about how Romeo and Juliet love each other so dearly that without each other they would rather be dead. The love is strong and seems almost unbreakable. â€Å"Their deep interest for us lies in their being alone in a world which does notShow MoreRelatedEssay on Shakespeare in Love and Romeo and Juliet1511 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeare In Love,  Romeo and Juliet the play, Romeo and Juliet with Leonardo  DiCaprio  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All these works  display very different ideas from the original story and its creation. Each one of them has its own way of portraying the time, the characters, and the themes. 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